Philippine History

Halili, Maria Christine. Philippine History. Rex Book Store Inc., 2nd edition, 2010.

For this book summary, I will look into the work of Maria Christine N. Halili (2^nd ed., 2010) entitled Philippine History. The author aims to provide a comprehensive text “about Philippine history marked by important events, places, dates and persons forming the growth of societies and distinction of culture.”; further, Halili (2010) hopes to “develop a sense of identity and pride in being a Filipino”.

Chapter 1. Knowing Philippine History

The chapter one of the book outlines the underlying reasons regarding why we have to study and know about Philippine history. The author proceeded with various theories and perspectives used by historians in the analysis and interpretation of history. She also discussed the sources of history, namely: primary and secondary sources. Towards the end of the chapter, the author identified several “persisting problems” in the study of Philippine history particularly the so-called ‘unhistorical data’. This refers to the questionable sources of history that has been debunked by recent study and scholarship.

To put it simply, history is the study of past events. The systematic study of the past is vital in our understanding of the present and an important guidepost or foresight to view the future. In the study of history, the use of theories and perspectives in the interpretation and analysis of data/facts is important as it provides a lens to the political, economic, ecological, social and cultural developments of a nation and its people.

In the study of history, the “sources of information provide the evidence from which the historian obtains facts about the past” (Halili, 2010:5). Primary sources are important to the veracity and integrity of the data/facts of the events being studied. Helpful to the task of the historian are the researches from other related fields of study like archeology. Lastly, the historian should also update himself/herself with recent scholarships regarding questions of authenticity and authorship of some dubious “primary sources” that has now been debunked or being questioned by some authorities of Philippine history.

Chapter 2. The Natural Setting and its People

The chapter two of Philippine History (Halili, 2010:15-36), tackles the various topics/themes regarding the geological beginnings of the country and its mythical and scientific explanations. How did the Philippine archipelago come about? The author draws answers from several theories in order to shed light on the matter. For example, the theory of ‘continental drift’ by Alfred Wegener provided some insights on the presence of an “all-land” or Pangaea which explained that the Philippines may have been part of this supercontinent. In connection, the Asiatic theory or land bridges theory “states that the Philippines was once part of continental Asia”. The author provided in this chapter a balanced analysis by also citing other perspectives opposing or contrary to the theories mentioned above.

In the same chapter Halili (2010) explored other important data/facts helpful to the understanding of Philippine history. The name of our country is one interesting area to look into. The name Philippines came from “the word Filipinas given by the Spanish navigator Ruy Lopez de Villalobos in 1543 on honor of Prince Philip of Asturias who became King Philip of Spain”. But prior to that, our archipelago was referred to with various names like Ma-yi in the pre-Spanish era.

The Philippines’ geography and resources provides a key ingredient in its rich history and culture. The country has been dubbed as the ‘crossroads of the Pacific’. Being an archipelago, the country has more than 7,000 islands and islets with a total land area of 300,000 square kilometers. It is composed of three major island groups namely: Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. The country’s location (its nearness to the equator and place in the Pacific) can provide an understanding to its rich flora and fauna as well as its exposure to typhoons and earthquakes. The country has a diverse land features and water forms crucial to its political, economic and socio-cultural diversity and development. The geographical diversity of the country also contributes to the cultural diversity of the Filipino people.

Chapter 3. Pre-Colonial Philippines

The chapter three of Philippine History (Halili, 2010:37-59) explored the various stages of cultural development of the early Filipinos. The author discussed the different perspectives/theories regarding the “peopling” of the Philippine archipelago. These perspectives/theories include the following: 1. Mainland Origin Hypothesis (Peter Bellwood) 2. Island Origin Hypothesis (Wilhelm Solheim II). The said theories are “alternative proposals” on the origin of Filipinos challenging (or adding to?) the Wave Migration theory of Henry Beyer and the Core Population theory of Felipe Jocano.

Before the arrival of the Western colonizers, the country was already a host to different ethnolinguistic groups. Depending on the perspective or theory one subscribes to, these diverse groups of early “Filipinos” either came to the islands by waves of migration using boat technology (ex. Balangay) or there emerged/evolved within the archipelago a core population and they spread outside the islands bringing with them their incipient tools and culture. The discovery of the Callao Man dates the presence of ‘man’ in the Philippines to at least 70, 000 years ago. However, a recent archeological discovery in northern Luzon even pushed further the presence of early man in the country.

The place of the Philippines within the Indo-Pacific realm contributed to its early contact with neighboring countries thereby facilitating the influx of foreign influences. These influences are reflected in the political, economic, linguistic and socio-cultural facets of pre-colonial ‘Filipinos’. The Austronesian-Malay, Indic, Sinic and Arabic-Islamic influences became embedded within the indigenous/endogenous aspects of Filipino culture and traditions. These influences are visible or reflected in both the material and non-material aspects of the Filipino way of life.

Chapter 4. The Spanish Era

This chapter of the book Philippine History by Halili (2010:60-91) explored the realm of European conquest and the arrival of the Spaniards in the Philippine archipelago. According to Halili (2010:60), the “fifteenth and sixteenth centuries brought an era of worldwide exploration and expansion that resulted from the desire to gain new lands, power, and wealth for the explorers and their countries”. Subsequently, the coming of the Spanish conquistadores in the islands placed the country within the ambit of western colonization and social change.

The sixteenth century Europe was teeming with changes that has forever upturned its landscape. Several technological and scientific breakthroughs (ex. Maritime technology, mercantilism, emergence of the naccion) brought about burning desires for exploration and discovery. The rising demand for gold, spices and other merchandise, as well as their religious zeal to convert the heathens to their religion paved the way for “daring voyages and sought new lands and riches.” On 20 September 1519, Magellan left the port of San Lucar de Barrameda, Spain with five ships namely: Trinidad, Conception, Santiago, San Antonio, and Victoria and a crew of about 250 men.

The subsequent voyages particularly after the Magellan Expedition lead to a “clash” of cultures with the foreign one eventually vanquishing most of the indigenous population and instituting sweeping changes in the archipelago. Spanish conquistadores planted the roots of their colonial design in Cebu and Manila which later expanded to other pacified areas of the islands. Attempts to establish their colonial rule in Mindanao was met with difficulty and resistance.

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries witnessed the colonial thrust of the Spaniards. Unprecedented changes were imposed by the colonizers namely: political, economic, religious and cultural to the natives. The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries marked the Unification, Catholicization and Hispanization attempts/designs of the Spanish colonial rule.

Chapter 5. Struggle for Rights and Freedom

The Spanish project of social transformation in the Philippines during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was not a smooth sailing endeavor. It was met with acceptance, indifference and resistance. The chapter five of Philippine History (Halili, 2010:92-131) elucidated the challenges encountered by the Spaniards in their designs of Unification, Christianization and Hispanization. The chapter also discussed the responses of the natives to the Spanish colonial scheme.

In 1521, Magellan’s interventionist action in the local affairs of the natives in Cebu and Mactan led to his demise. It took about forty years until a successful colonization of the Philippines was established by Legazpi in 1565 (although some historians would argue that the Villalobos expedition in Saranggani/Mindanao was the first colony in the archipelago). It was said that Legazpi was an able and diplomatic leader and as such he was able to befriend a lot of local chieftains and converted their families to Catholicism. However, after his death, his successors abolished/reverted his policies thus leading to the revolt of 1574 by Lakandula and Sulayman. It could be said that the first two hundred years of Spanish presence in the country was met with uprisings and revolts. Several factors can be attributed to these skirmishes namely: land/agricultural, political and religious. The Spanish attempts to expand in Mindanao and subdue its inhabitants was met with valiant resistance. A clear example was the war between the Mindanao Muslims and the Spaniards which lasted for more than three hundred years (Halili, 2010:102).

The struggles for freedom particularly in the Luzon, Visayas, and some areas of Mindanao failed due to lack of unity and unified leadership. There was no unified “agenda” considering that the various uprisings and revolts in the archipelago was done with different reasons.

In chapter five, the author explained the important role played by the rise of Filipino nationalism and the emergence of a “national spirit” (sentiment and consciousness) in countering the colonizer’s prejudice, abuses and injustices.

Chapter 6. The Birth of a Nation

The rise of Filipino nationalism eventually helped in articulating the sentiments of the people and their desire for reform. There are two phases of the Filipino nationalist struggle, namely: propaganda movement and revolution of 1896. The use of the pen initiated the awakening of the consciousness of the natives and thereby planting the seeds of patriotism and love of country. The failure of the propagandist to advance and implement the needed reforms paved the way towards a more violent approach of nationalism; from the pen to the sword, from propaganda to armed revolution. The arrest of Jose Rizal on 3 July 1892 led to the establishment of the Katipunan by Andres Bonifacio and the “mga anak ng bayan”.

During the Katipunan’s campaign for independence the revolutionary movement was plagued with infighting. Subsequently, the Katipunan was divided into two factions namely, the Magdalo and the Magdiwang. The result was devastating to the revolution: Bonifacio was arrested and executed and Emilio Aguinaldo emerge as the undisputed leader of the revolution.

In chapter six of the book Philippine History (Halili, 2010:132-140), the author explained the circumstances leading to the proclamation of Philippine independence. After Aguinaldo signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and went into self-exile in Hong Kong and Singapore, the Americans contacted him and was told to return to the Philippines to continue their fight against the Spaniards.

Against the advice of Apolinario Mabini, Aguinaldo declared Philippine independence from Spain on 12 June 1898 before an eager crowd of Filipinos in Kawit, Cavite finally ending 333 years of Spanish oppression and domination. It was in this historic moment that the new Philippine Republic was able to unfurl its independence flag and the national anthem was played.

However, the Americans were also scheming for their colonial plans for the Philippines. After the sham Battle of Manila, the Spanish forces surrendered to the Americans with their terms of capitulation enshrined in the Treaty of Paris signed on 10 December 1898 ceding the Philippines to the Americans after their payment of 20 million dollars.

Chapter 7. The American Rule

This chapter discussed the consequences of the arrival of the Americans to the Filipino struggle for nationhood and independence. What was regarded by Aguinaldo and the Filipino revolutionaries as an ally turned out to be a cunning adversary. The Americans thought that it was their Manifest Destiny (God-given right?) “to help oppressed countries and build democratic nations.” On 21 December 1898 U.S. President McKinley issued his so-called Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation thereby cementing the American sovereignty over the entire Philippine archipelago.

On the other hand, Aguinaldo issued a counter-proclamation on 5 January 1899 signifying that the Filipino forces “were prepared to fight any American attempt to take over the country.” The Americans did not heed to the resistance of the revolutionaries. A Philippine Commission (Schurman Commission) was established despite the ongoing Philippine-American War which resulted from an incident on 4 February 1899 where an American soldier named Private Grayson shot and killed a Filipino soldier.

The Muslims in the Philippine south initially remained neutral and non-involved in the Filipino-American war. The Americans tried to win the friendship of the Mindanao Muslims by negotiating with them of which one key result was the signing of the Bates Treaty. However, in the course of the American colonial project, Muslims in Mindanao experienced the bloodiest wars against the Americans particularly in the Sulu, Lanao and Cotabato areas.

Ultimately, the American forces thought that the road to pacification and the surrender of the Filipino revolutionaries was the arrest of Aguinaldo whose fledgling government was on the run. American forces thus designed a plan to capture Aguinaldo. A combined force of Macabebe mercenaries, two former officers of Aguinaldo, three Tagalog natives and four American officers successfully captured Aguinaldo. On 19 April 1901, Aguinaldo took the oath of allegiance to the United States and appealed to Filipinos to accept American sovereignty in the Philippines, signaling America’s domination in the country and imposition of sweeping social changes thereby ensuring their colonial legacy in the Philippines.

Chapter 8. Commonwealth Period

This chapter elucidates the American colonial legacy as Filipinos continue to assert their “right to political independence”. The end of Filipino-American war resulted to the institutionalization of changes in the country namely, political, socio-cultural and economic. Although, there were still some continued clash between American forces and Filipino revolutionaries (ex. Malvar, Sakay) after Aguinaldo’s capitulation to the United States of America, the Americans proceeded with their pacification and assimilation project. The Americans established schools, hospitals, bought and distributed the friar lands, and later on included Filipino participation in government. Filipinos were also trained in the principles of liberal democracy and republicanism. However, the clamor for independence and self-rule still pervaded among the Filipinos.

As an initial step, Filipinos were employed in the government bureaucracy. A Philippine Assembly was created to ensure political participation of the Filipinos in the legislative aspect of governance. Landmark legislations like the Jones Law of 1916 and the Tydings-McDuffie Law paved the way for a transition government (ten years, 1935-1945) as a precondition and “training period” prior to the eventual recognition of Philippine independence.

On 15 November 1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was inaugurated and “the country now had a self-ruling government except in matters of treasury and foreign affairs”. At the helm of the new government was Manuel Quezon as President and Sergio Osmeńa as Vice-President. Upon assuming office, President Quezon set in motion several programs and projects that would improve the country and the plight of the Filipino people. Developments in infrastructure, national security and social justice were pursued and implemented. Growth of agriculture, commerce and industries were also secured as well as the inflow of foreign capital. A law on the creation of a National Language was enacted. The adoption and amendments to the 1935 Constitution was nonetheless implemented.

The rise to power of Hitler however, caused an unprecedented political-military disruption in the global and national arena. When Japan joined the Axis Powers and attacked Pearl Harbor, the Philippines was drawn into a war it did not want.

Chapter 9. The Japanese Occupation

If the Philippines was not a colony of the Americans would it still be attacked by the Japanese Imperial Army? This is such a persistent question among students of history but its answer may vary or depend on one’s perspective and way of looking at it. This chapter examines the coming of the Japanese in the Philippines, the impact of their Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere/Asia for Asians policy, and the radical changes implemented in the country. Chapter nine also looks into the effect/impact of World War II to the country and the Filipino people.

According to Halili (2010:179), “By early 1942, the Philippines, Burma, Singapore, the Dutch East Indies, French Indochina, and other territories in southeastern Asia and the Pacific were placed under the Japanese rule…”. In the Philippines, the gains of the Commonwealth Government under President Quezon was brought to a naught. Despite declaring Manila as an Open City, the Japanese Imperial Army still bombarded it causing incalculable damages to Filipino lives and properties. When McArthur left the country he brought with him the Quezon administration leaving instructions to Jorge Vargas and Jose Laurel to negotiate/cooperate with the Japanese forces in order to make the impact of their occupation less severe.

The fall of Bataan and Corregidor military camps to the Japanese forces signaled a shift in political and military rule in the country. Japanese forces placed the prisoners of war in detention camps subjugating them to torture and other grueling physical abuse. Curfews were implemented in the country. Civilians caught and/or accused of subversive activities were arrested, imprisoned, tortured or executed. Life during the war years was difficult: food was scarce, money lost value, exorbitant price of basic goods and commodities if available.

Despite of these difficulties, the Japanese occupants want to put a façade of normalcy in the country. A Republic of the Philippines was proclaimed with Jose Laurel as President. Continued resistance against the Japanese was conducted by Filipino and American groups through guerrilla warfare. Not long after, the Americans would return liberating the country from the Japanese forces.

Chapter 10. The Republic

This chapter is the last chapter of the book Philippine History by Maria Christine Halili (2010). This chapter outlines the aftermath of the Japanese occupation in the country, the restoration of the commonwealth government, and the eventual “granting” of Philippine independence as promised by the Americans.

The author emotionally pointed out that, “From the ashes of the Pacific war, a new Philippine Republic has risen” (Halili, 2010:200). With Manuel Roxas at the helm as President, thus began the Third Philippine Republic.

It was said that the problems and ills of our country today or at least by the time President Marcos declared Martial Law commenced at this period. The Pacific War resulted to large-scale devastation of properties and massive loss of livelihood among Filipinos. Some sectors pointed out that America should not have granted our independence in 1946 because we were yet to recover from the war. Since the war was a costly endeavor, it seems that the business of the day for the Western colonizers in Asia/Southeast Asia was to let go of their colonies so as to unburden them of incurring additional expenses in post-war restoration and rehabilitation.

The succeeding administrations after Roxas encountered various challenges and problems. The agrarian problem became a dominant theme which resulted to the rise of the Hukbalahap and their shift of struggle: formerly against the Japanese, now against the Philippine government. To address this issue, the government instituted agricultural colonies/settlements in Mindanao to relocate the disgruntled rebels. However, the making of Mindanao as a land of promise just exacerbated further conflicts among the Settlers, Moros, and Lumads. The Cold War between U.S. and U.S.S.R. ensued a Red Scare in the country. Communist ideologies penetrated in the urban and rural communities adding to the already myriad problems faced by the succeeding administrations.

These contemporary Philippine problems became the bone of contention of our government leaders. The need to address them was paramount in order to improve the lives of the Filipinos and provide a comfortable life for all. ###

Gregg J. Galgo

Mindanao, Philippines

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